Pathophysiological aspects of renal stone formation and stone types

Authors

  • Rabie KACHKOUL Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Laboratory of Biochemistry, BP 1893, Km 22, Road of Sidi Harazem, Fez (MA)
  • Ghita BENJELLOUN TOUIMI Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University (USMBA), Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy of Fez, Laboratory of Human Pathology Biomedicine and Environment, Fez (MA)
  • Ghita EL MOUHRI Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Laboratory of Biochemistry, BP 1893, Km 22, Road of Sidi Harazem, Fez (MA)
  • Radouane EL HABBANI Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Laboratory of Biochemistry, BP 1893, Km 22, Road of Sidi Harazem, Fez (MA)
  • Anissa LAHRICHI Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah University, Faculty of Medicine and Pharmacy, Laboratory of Biochemistry, BP 1893, Km 22, Road of Sidi Harazem, Fez (MA)

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.55779/nsb15111462

Keywords:

kidney stone disease, pathophysiological aspects, stone formation, stones type

Abstract

Urinary stone formation is one of the oldest and most widespread diseases known to man. The disease has a multifactorial etiology that includes anatomic, environmental, genetic, infectious, metabolic, nutritional, and most importantly socio-economic factors. It is caused by a biochemical imbalance in urine between stone-forming inhibitors and promotors in a process known as lithogenesis. The mechanisms underlying the formation and development of urinary stones are not fully understood, but it can be said that they generally begin by increased urinary supersaturation of lithiasis promoters in the urine, followed by nucleation and aggregation. Subsequently, the crystals combine with other crystals in solution to form agglomerates that accumulate in the kidney. Free radical-mediated oxalate-induced renal membrane damage promotes crystal retention at the surface of the renal papilla, as well as crystal nucleation at lower supersaturation levels. In addition, stone type identification is of great interest in guiding the physician to an effective diagnosis, which allows to determine the causes in order to treat the disease and prevent recurrence. In this context, this present study reviews current knowledge on the pathophysiological aspects of kidney stone formation as well as the type of stones.

Metrics

Metrics Loading ...

References

Agawane SB, Gupta VS, Kulkarni MJ, Bhattacharya AK, Koratkar SS, Rao VK (2019). Patho-physiological evaluation of Duranta erecta for the treatment of urolithiasis. Journal of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine 10(1):4-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaim.2017.08.001

Aggarwal A, Tandon S, Singla SK, Tandon C (2010). Diminution of oxalate induced renal tubular epithelial cell injury and inhibition of calcium oxalate crystallization in vitro by aqueous extract of Tribulus terrestris. International Brazilian Journal of Urology 36(4):480-488. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1677-55382010000400011

Aggarwal KP, Narula S, Kakkar M, Tandon C (2013). Nephrolithiasis: molecular mechanism of renal stone formation and the critical role played by modulators. BioMed Research International 2013:1-21. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/292953

Aguilar-Ruiz J, Arrabal-Polo MA, Sierra M, Arrabal-Martin M (2012). Application of mineralogical techniques in the study of human lithiasis. Ultrastructural Pathology 36(6):367-376. https://doi.org/10.3109/01913123.2012.729879

Ahmed S, Hasan MM, Khan H, Mahmood ZA, Patel S (2018). The mechanistic insight of polyphenols in calcium oxalate urolithiasis mitigation. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy 106:1292-1299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2018.07.080

Alelign T, Petros B (2018). Kidney stone disease: an update on current concepts. Advances in Urology 2018:1-12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/3068365

Arumuham V, Bycroft J (2016). The management of urolithiasis. Surgery (Oxford) 34(7):352-360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mpsur.2016.04.007

Basavaraj DR, Biyani CS, Browning AJ, Cartledge JJ (2007). The role of urinary kidney stone inhibitors and promoters in the pathogenesis of calcium containing renal stones. EAU-EBU Update Series 5(3):126-136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eeus.2007.03.002

Bashir S, and Gilani AH (2011). Antiurolithic effect of berberine is mediated through multiple pathways. European Journal of Pharmacology 651(1-3):168-175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejphar.2010.10.076

Bouatia M, Benramdane L, Oulad Bouyahya Idrissi M, Draoui M (2015). An epidemiological study on the composition of urinary stones in Morocco in relation to age and sex. African Journal of Urology 21(3):194-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afju.2015.02.006

Bruyere F, Traxer O, Saussine C, Lechevallier E (2008). Infection et lithiase urinaire. Progres en Urologie 18(12):1015-1020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.purol.2008.09.015

Cao LC, Honeyman TW, Cooney R, Kennington L, Scheid CR, Jonassen JA (2004). Mitochondrial dysfunction is a primary event in renal cell oxalate toxicity. Kidney International 66(5):1890-1900. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1755.2004.00963.x

Carvahlo M, and Nakagawa Y (1999). Urinary supersaturation and recurrence in nephrolithiasis. International Brazilian Journal of Urology 25:475-479.

Castiglione V, Jouret F, Bruyère O, Dubois B, Thomas A, Waltregny D, Bekaert A-C, Cavalier É, Gadisseur R (2015). Épidémiologie de la lithiase urinaire en Belgique sur base d’une classification morpho-constitutionnelle. Néphrologie & Thérapeutique 11(1):42-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nephro.2014.08.003

Chakit M, Aqira A, El Hessni A, Mesfioui A (2023). Place of extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy in the treatment of urolithiasis in the region of Gharb Chrarda Bni Hssen (Morocco). Urolithiasis 51(1):33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-023-01407-9

Cloutier J, Villa L, Traxer O, Daudon M (2015). Kidney stone analysis: “Give me your stone, I will tell you who you are!” World Journal of Urology 33(2):157-169. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00345-014-1444-9

Coe FL, Evan A, Worcester E (2005). Kidney stone disease. The Journal of Clinical Investigations 115(10):2598-2608. https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI26662.2598

Cotton F, Wolff F, Simon I, Idrissi M, Tielemans C, Bossche M Vanden, Roumeguère T, Pozdzik A (2014). Apport de la biologie clinique dans l’exploration étiologique et le suivi de l’urolithiase. Revue Medicale de Bruxelles 35(4):243-249.

Courbebaisse M, Prot-Bertoye C, Bertocchio JP, Baron S, Maruani G, Briand S, Daudon M, Houillier P (2017). Lithiase rénale de l’adulte : des mécanismes au traitement médical préventif. Revue de Medecine Interne 38(1):44-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.revmed.2016.05.013.

Curhan GC (2007). Epidemiology of stone disease. Clinical Management of Urolithiasis 34:287-293. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-28732-9_1

Daudon M (2008). Épidémiologie actuelle de la lithiase rénale en France. EMC - Urologie 1(1):1-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1762-0953(06)75004-X

Daudon M (2013). La cristallurie: un marqueur diagnostique et pronostique des pathologies cristallogènes et des lithiases rénales. Revue Francophone Des Laboratoires 2013(455):67-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1773-035X(13)72181-6

Daudon M (2015). Cristallurie. Néphrologie & Thérapeutique 11(3):174-190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nephro.2015.03.003

Daudon M, Cohen-Solal F, Jungers P (2000). Mécanismes de la lithogenèse et de la cristallurie. Biologie & Santé 1(1):50-65.

Daudon M, Dessombz A, Frochot V, Letavernier E, Haymann J-P, Jungers P, Bazin D (2016). Comprehensive morpho-constitutional analysis of urinary stones improves etiological diagnosis and therapeutic strategy of nephrolithiasis. Comptes Rendus Chimie 19(11-12):1470-1491. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crci.2016.05.008

Daudon M, Letavernier E, Frochot V, Haymann J-P, Bazin D, Jungers P (2016). Respective influence of calcium and oxalate urine concentration on the formation of calcium oxalate monohydrate or dihydrate crystals. Comptes Rendus Chimie 19(11-12):1504-1513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crci.2016.08.009

Daudon M, Traxer O, Lechevallier E, Saussine C (2008). La lithogenèse. Progrès En Urologie 18(12):815-827. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.purol.2008.09.032

Delvecchio F, Brizuela R, Khan S, Byer K, Li Z, Zhong P, Preminger G (2005). Citrate and vitamin E blunt the shock wave-induced free radical surge in an in vitro cell culture model. Urology Research 33:448-452. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-005-0506-2

Doré B (2005). Extra corporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) procedure in urology. Annales d’Urologie 39(3-4):137-158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anuro.2005.07.002

El Habbani R, Chaqroune A, Sqalli Houssaini T, Arrayhani M, El Ammari J, Dami F, Chouhani BA, Lahrichi A (2016). Étude épidémiologique sur les calculs urinaires dans la région de Fès et sur le risque de récidive. Progres En Urologie 26(5):287-294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.purol.2016.02.004

El Lekhlifi Z, Laziri F, Boumzaoued H, Maouloua M, Louktibi M (2014). Étude épidémiologique rétrospective sur la lithiase urinaire chez l’enfant dans la région de Meknès au Maroc (2000-2012). Journal de Pediatrie et de Puericulture 27(1):23-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpp.2013.10.003

El Lekhlifi Z, Laziri F, Samih M, Hida M, Bouabdillah Y, Souilmi FZ (2016). Epidemiological characteristics of childhood urolithiasis in Morocco. African Journal of Urology 22(2):92-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.afju.2016.01.009

Estrade V, Daudon M, Traxer O, Méria P (2017). Pourquoi l’urologue doit savoir reconnaître un calcul et comment faire ? Les bases de la reconnaissance endoscopique. Progrès En Urologie - FMC 27(2):F26-F35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpurol.2017.03.002

Evan AP (2010). Physiopathology and etiology of stone formation in the kidney and the urinary tract. Pediatr Nephrol 25:831-841. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00467-009-1116-y

Fasano JM, and Khan SR (2001). Intratubular crystallization of calcium oxalate in the presence of membrane vesicles: An in vitro study. Kidney International 59(1):169-178. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1755.2001.00477.x

Geraghty RM, Davis NF, Tzelves L, Lombardo R, Yuan C, Thomas K, … Somani BK (2023). Best practice in interventional management of urolithiasis: an update from the European Association of Urology Guidelines Panel for Urolithiasis 2022. European Urology Focus 9(1):199-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euf.2022.06.014

Geraghty RM, Jones P, Somani BK (2017). Worldwide trends of urinary stone disease treatment over the last two decades: a systematic review. Journal of Endourology 31(6):547-556. https://doi.org/10.1089/end.2016.0895

Hesse A, Brändle E, Wilbert D, Köhrmann KU, Alken P (2003). Study on the Prevalence and incidence of urolithiasis in Germany comparing the years 1979 vs. 2000. European Urology 44(6):709-713. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0302-2838(03)00415-9

Kavanagh JP (2011). Physicochemical aspects of uro-crystallization and stone formation. In: Rao NP, Preminger GM, Kavanagh JP (Eds). Urinary Tract Stone Disease. Springer London pp 17-30. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-84800-362-0

Khan SR (2004). Crystal-induced inflammation of the kidneys: Results from human studies, animal models, and tissue-culture studies. Clinical and Experimental Nephrology 8(2):75-88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10157-004-0292-0

Khan SR (2005). Hyperoxaluria-induced oxidative stress and antioxidants for renal protection. Urological Research 33(5):349-357. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-005-0492-4

Khan SR (2006). Renal tubular damage/dysfunction: Key to the formation of kidney stones. Urological Research 34(2):86-91. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-005-0016-2

Khan SR (2014). Reactive oxygen species, inflammation and calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis. Translational Andrology and Urology 3(3):256-276. https://doi.org/10.3978/j.issn.2223-4683.2014.06.04

Khan SR, Glenton PA, Backov R, Talham DR (2002). Presence of lipids in urine, crystals and stones: Implications for the formation of kidney stones. Kidney International 62(6):2062-2072. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1755.2002.00676.x

Khan SR, Joshi S, Wang W, Peck AB (2014). Regulation of macromolecular modulators of urinary stone formation by reactive oxygen species: Transcriptional study in an animal model of hyperoxaluria. American Journal of Renal Physiology 306(5):1285-1295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.juro.2014.05.107

Khan SR, Pearle MS, Robertson WG, Gambaro G, Canales BK, Doizi S, … Tiselius H-G (2016). Kidney stones. Nature Reviews Disease Primers 2:1-22. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrdp.2016.8

Khan SR, Shevock PN, Hackett RL (1990). Membrane-associated crystallization of calcium oxalate in vitro. Calcified Tissue International 46(2):116-120. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02556095

Kohri K, Yasui T, Okada A, Hirose M, Hamamoto S, Fujii Y, … Taguchi K (2012). Biomolecular mechanism of urinary stone formation involving osteopontin. Urological Research 40(6):623-637. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-012-0514-y

Kok DJ and Khan SR (1994). Calcium oxalate nephrolithiasis, a free or fixed particle disease. Kidney International 46(3):847-854. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.1994.341

Lechevallier E, Saussine C, Traxer O (2008). Imagerie et calcul de la voie excrétrice urinaire supérieure. Progres en Urologie 18(12):863-867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.purol.2008.09.014

Lieske J and Deganello S (1999). Nucleation, adhesion, and internalization of calcium-containing urinary crystals by renal cells. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 10(14):S422-S429.

Miller NL, Evan AP, Lingeman JE (2007). Pathogenesis of Renal Calculi. In Urologic Clinics of North America 34(3):295-313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ucl.2007.05.007

Modlin M (1980). A history of urinary stone. South African Medical Journal 58(16):652-655.

Niimi K, Yasui T, Hirose M, Hamamoto S, Itoh Y, Okada A, Kohri K (2012). Mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening induces the initial process of renal calcium crystallization. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 52(7):1207-1217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2012.01.005

Niimi K, Yasui T, Okada A, Hirose Y, Kubota Y, Umemoto Kohri K (2014). Novel effect of the inhibitor of mitochondrial cyclophilinD activation, N-methyl-4-isoleucine cyclosporin, on renal calcium crystallization. International Journal of Urology 21(7):707-713. https://doi.org/10.1111/iju.12425

Oussama A, Kzaiber F, Mernari B, Hilmi A, Semmoud A, Daudon M (2000). Analyse des calculs urinaires de l’adulte dans le Moyen Atlas Marocain par spectrophotométrie infrarouge à transformée de Fourier. Progrès en Urologie 10(3):404-410.

Puigvert A (2002). Urinary infection stones. Urologia Internationalis 19:488-498.

Ratkalkar VN, and Kleinman JG (2011). Mechanisms of stone formation. Clinical Reviews in Bone and Mineral Metabolism 9(3-4):187-197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12018-011-9104-8

Rieu P (2005). Lithiases d’infection. Annales d’Urologie 39(1):16-29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anuro.2005.01.001

Robertson WG, Peacock M, Nordin BE (1971). Calcium oxalate crystalluria and urine saturation in recurrent renal stone-formers. Clinical Science 40:365-374. https://doi.org/10.1042/cs0430499

Safarinejad MR (2007). Adult urolithiasis in a population-based study in Iran: Prevalence, incidence, and associated risk factors. Urological Research 35(2):73-82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-007-0084-6

Servais A, Daudon M, Knebelman B (2006). Lithiases médicamenteuses. In Annales d’Urologie 40(2):57-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anuro.2006.01.002

Sikarwar I, Dey YN, Wanjari MM, Sharma A, Gaidhani SN, Jadhav AD (2017). Chenopodium album Linn. leaves prevent ethylene glycol-induced urolithiasis in rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 195:275-282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.11.031

Thamilselvan S, Khan SR, Menon M (2003). Oxalate and calcium oxalate mediated free radical toxicity in renal epithelial cells: Effect of antioxidants. Urological Research 31(1):3-9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00240-002-0286-x

Traxer O, Lechevallier E, Saussine C (2008). Lithiase cystinique : diagnostic et prise en charge thérapeutique. Progrès En Urologie 18(12):832-836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.purol.2008.09.036

Tsujihata M (2008). Mechanism of calcium oxalate renal stone formation and renal tubular cell injury. International Journal of Urology 15(2):115-120. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-2042.2007.01953.x

Umekawa T, Byer K, Uemura H, Khan SR (2005). Diphenyleneiodium (DPI) reduces oxalate ion- and calcium oxalate monohydrate and brushite crystal-induced upregulation of MCP-1 in NRK 52E cells. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation 20(5):870-878. https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfh750

Umekawa T, Hatanaka Y, Kurita T, Khan SR (2004). Effect of Angiotensin II receptor blockage on osteopontin expression and calcium oxalate crystal deposition in rat kidneys. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 15:635-644. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ASN.0000113321.49771.2D

Verkoelen CF (2006). Crystal retention in renal stone disease: A crucial role for the glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan? Journal of the American Society of Nephrology 17(6):1673-1687. https://doi.org/10.1681/ASN.2006010088

Verkoelen CF, Romijn JC, De Bruijn WC, Boevé ER, Cao LC, Schröder FH (1995). Association of calcium oxalate monohydrate crystals with MDCK cells. Kidney International 48(1):129-138. https://doi.org/10.1038/ki.1995.276

Verkoelen CF, & Verhulst A (2007). Proposed mechanisms in renal tubular crystal retention. In Kidney International 72(1):13-18). https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ki.5002272

Wesson JA, Worcester EM, Wiessner JH, Mandel NS, Kleinman JG (1998). Control of calcium oxalate crystal structure and cell adherence by urinary macromolecules. Kidney International 53(4):952-957. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1755.1998.00839.x

Yasui T, Okada A, Hamamoto S, Ando R, Taguchi K, Tozawa K, Kohri K (2017). Pathophysiology-based treatment of urolithiasis. International Journal of Urology 24(1):32-38. https://doi.org/10.1111/iju.13187

Yu SL, Gan XG, Huang JM, Cao Y, Wang YQ, Pan SH, An RH (2011). Oxalate impairs aminophospholipid translocase activity in renal epithelial cells via oxidative stress: Implications for calcium oxalate urolithiasis. Journal of Urology 186(3):1114-1120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.juro.2011.04.106

Published

2023-03-17

How to Cite

KACHKOUL, R., BENJELLOUN TOUIMI, G., EL MOUHRI, G., EL HABBANI, R., & LAHRICHI, A. (2023). Pathophysiological aspects of renal stone formation and stone types. Notulae Scientia Biologicae, 15(1), 11462. https://doi.org/10.55779/nsb15111462

Issue

Section

Review articles
CITATION
DOI: 10.55779/nsb15111462